Global warming effects on fish performances

By: Lisa Jones

The earth’s atmospheric temperature is increasing due to the effects of global warming. Global warming is a phenomenon that is caused by greenhouse emissions being trapped in the earth atmosphere increasing the temperature. Temperature is a factor that plays a role in a variety of species performance and survival capabilities. An increase in temperature in aquatic systems affects fish’s ability to intake oxygen. Rising temperature will change the biodiversity in aquatic communities. This will result in a decline of certain species of fish that are not able to adapt to its new ecosystem. With an estimated increase three degrees Celsius within the hundred years it has been increasingly important to understand tropical marine life response to temperature increase.

A study conducted on Heron Island and Lizard Island during the hottest months by Nilsson had suggested that cooler southern populations of fish had better responses to an increase in temperature. The difference in the response to temperature is accounted for by the fish’s local adaptations such as cardiac output, area of surface that intakes oxygen, the amount of oxygen blood can carry, and the rate in which oxygen is moved from the blood to the muscle. Although the response of cardinalfish and damselfish where better in southern population it was found that both had a increase in mortality after a certain increase in temperature approximately four degrees.

This research will help predict change in aquatic life due to global warming. Being able to predict how a fish’s ability to perform necessary functions needed for survival will help aid us in the conservation of reef marine life. Nilsson has provided information in which explains how some reef fish are able to adapt to an increase in demand for oxygen, in which of includes metabolic systems and the factor that are contributed by the surroundings.

References:

http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0013299

The Green Side of Carbon Dioxide

Think that the increase in carbon dioxide benefits no living things? Think again. A study conducted by the Department of Environmental Engineering at the Zhejiang University in Hangzhou, China, has implications that these increased levels of carbon dioxide actually aid the growth of some plants. The study, which was carried out by Jun-Zhi Liu, Ya-Ming Ge, Yu-Fei Zhou, and Guang-Ming Tian, focused on the effects of elevated carbon dioxide on the water hyacinth, E. crassipes.

In the recent years, our awareness of climate change and the greenhouse effect has increased. By this point, most people know that these are related to carbon emissions, and ever increasing amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Among the different practices that have been recommended to reduce the carbon footprint is to plant trees, due to the fact that plants take carbon dioxide and replace it with oxygen during photosynthesis.

It should be worth noting that although the specimens were collected from a river near Hangzhou, the water hyacinth is not native to China. Originally from South America, it is mentioned at the beginning of the study as being "notorious as the world's worst aquatic invasive weed," due to its rapid growth and reproduction rates. Despite this, though, the plant has also been used for several industrial purposes, including the removal of toxins and nutrients from water. The potential to increase the growth of the water hyacinth can be connected to either the increase of invasive species or the opportunity to clean out water systems.

To test the effects of augmented carbon dioxide on this plant, the samples collected from the river were grown at four different nutrient levels--with two different concentrations of carbon dioxide each--to observe their growth and levels of nitrogen and phosphorus. Growth was measured according to the lengths of their roots and shoots, the number of leaves that they had, and the number of clone offspring produced, as well as the rate of the plant's relative growth.

At the end of a seven-week period of measurement, it was found that growth of the samples increased with both the level of carbon dioxide and the amount of nutrients available. What was more, the samples exposed to higher concentrations of carbon dioxide were unaffected if the level of nutrients available decreased, although this was more prevalent for the samples given more nutrients to begin with. It should also be noted that the increase of carbon dioxide had a greater effect on the growth of the roots than on that of the shoots. However, it had little to no effect on the number of leaves or clone offspring.

The amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus in the plants' tissues declined as the levels of carbon dioxide were raised, though these amounts also went down with the amount of nutrients already present. Although the concentrations of both nutrients were lower in the roots with and without the elevated carbon dioxide, the ratio between the levels of phosphorus and nitrogen were smaller in the shoots of the plants.

All in all, the study showed that "plant growth was positively related to culture nutrient level and atmospheric [carbon dioxide] conservation level." The discussion at the end of the research paper also pointed out how these levels compensated for a lack of nutrients, saying,

Our data suggest that though the [carbon dioxide]-induced stimulation on E. crassipes would overbalance the inhabitation caused by nutrient decline between narrow ranges...it would only partly compensate the inhabitation [caused] by nutrient decline between the wide ranges....

Considering the constantly increasing levels of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere today, these results could easily become reality for wherever the water hyacinth is prevalent. For that matter, the study goes on to suggest that this could be applied to other C3 plants. For something as invasive as the water hyacinth, though, the rise in carbon emissions could easily mean that the plants will spread much more rapidly. And since the higher concentrations in carbon dioxide affect the roots of the plants most of all, it will be easier for the roots to incorporate themselves into the native earth.

As was mentioned earlier in the article, the spread of water hyacinth in China can be viewed in a positive or negative light. Although environmental holists concerned with the intrinsic view of the native ecosystem would be appalled that elevated levels of carbon dioxide would cause the invasive species to flourish even more, others might see an advantage in the increase of a plant that could potentially remove toxic waste from water.

Still, the research paper points out that it is too early to make any definitive conclusions about the findings or their implications, saying,

...the [carbon dioxide]-induced increase in net nutrient accumulation would be adventageous with regards to bioremediation efficiency of water eutrophication, but its bioremedial efficiency for refractory organisms and heavy metals under elevated [carbon dioxide] needs further study. Studies on combined impacts of elevated [carbon dioxide] with other environmental factors at larger level are also needed to better manage this two-sided plant in a future climate scenario.

One matter is certain, though: At least there is one organism that seems to be benefitting from the increase of carbon emissions in the atmosphere.

Reference List

Jun-Zhi, L., Ya-Ming, G., Yu-Fei, Z., Guang-Ming, T. (2010). Effects of elevated CO2 on growth of Eichhornia crassipe under four different nutrient levels. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 212, 387-394. Retrieved October 13, 2010, from http://www.springerlink.com/content/h714724k0m254278/fulltext.pdf.

Connection between Land Use and Sea Turtle Disease

All species of sea turtle are either listed as threatened or endangered, but despite the continual growth of their population they are still plagued by the disease fibropapillomatosis, also referred to as FP. Members of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in Honolulu, Hawaii and the Nicholas School of Environment and Earth Sciences at Duke University have made new progress in discovering the effects and origin of the disease by studying the Hawaiian green turtles.
FP is a severe problem for sea turtles because it is an extremely incapacitating disease, which causes the development of tumours. It is not known for sure how FP is contracted; however a herpesvirus has been connected to the disease. Studies have observed that sea turtles with FP tumours also have the herpesvirus and that turtles free of one are also free of the other. The recent study takes a closer look at how the disease varies according to the size of turtles, whether the disease is more prevalent is specific geographic areas, and if so what are the reasons for the different geographic areas to be so afflicted. The answers to these questions give further insight to the possibility of the herpesvirus being the cause of FP.
To determine disease rates the researchers used records of 3,939 stranded green sea turtles that had been collected over 28 years from the National Marine Fisheries Service, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center.The study found that after the disease rates were calculated, there was indeed a relationship between turtle size and the risk of contracting FP. The results indicated that the age group of turtles which were most affected were those that had nearly reached adulthood.
Sea turtles breed every 3-4 years, which means that where they spend their time in-between breeding seasons has a significant effect on their health. These locations are referred to as their nearshore habitats. On the islands of Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii these habitats were split into twelve different regions for the purpose of the study, it was then determined which regions had the highest disease rates. Due to the variance among the regions, land use was then examined to determine if there was an explanation for why different regions had higher disease rates.
To examine the land use of the regions the researchers calculated a Nitrogen-footprint for each area based on ten factors they chose that are known major nitrogen contributors in the Hawaiian area. They chose to examine nitrogen because it is linked to the green turtles food source the macroalgae and because it is a well-known contributor to the balance of ecosystems. The chosen contributors were sewage injection wells, urbanization, the cultivation of pineapple and sugar, aquaculture and fishponds, the water flow of streams and rivers, estuaries and wetlands, ports, coastal lagoons, rigorous poultry and hog farming, and cattle grazing/dairy production. When the disease rates of FP were compared to the calculated N-footprints a strong correlation was found between having a high N-footprint in the same areas that have high disease rates.
This means that human production of N is possibly contributing to FP rates in green sea turtles. To discover how the N is affecting the sea turtles, their diet that is composed of mostly macroalgae, was examined. It was found that 93% of the regions where there is macroalgea there is also high disease rate and high N-footprints. The consumption of the macroalgae may therefore be significant to rates of FP in green turtle populations.
Since the macroaglae is found in N rich regions, and plants are known to produce large amount of arginine (Arg, an amino acid) in those conditions it is possible that the macroalgae is producing Arg. Arginine is connected to the herpesvirus, which has been suspected of causing the FP tumours. Therefore, this study suggests that high N-footprints could be the cause of the herpesvirus that may be the cause of FP tumours. However, the authors of the study warn that there are still many factors that may not yet have been explored which could cause the contraction of the infectious disease.


Reference:

Van Houtan KS, Hargrove SK, Balazs GH (2010) Land Use, Macroalgae, and a Tumor-Forming Disease in Marine Turtles. PLoS ONE 5(9): e12900. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012900


By: Katherine Robinson 0719523

New research could reduce cost of Drilling for Hydrocarbons

Oil and gas companies are always trying to find new clean and cost effective means of testing their wells. New research done by Francesca Versa and Vera Rocca in Torino may have found processes that could reduce the cost while increasing environmental cleanliness and safety of testing hydrocarbon wells.

The process of testing potential wells normally consists of drilling a test line that runs down to the well. Off of this, it can be determined what the content of the well is, and the pressure it will exert. This is seen as a negative process, all the fluid used to test the well has to be burned off creating a lot of carbon emissions that are bad for the atmosphere and the workers that are doing the burning process. This entire process is un cost productive due to the amount of hydrocarbons that are wasted in this process as well as the cost of a flaring (the igniting of hydrocarbons to burn them off safely) and the environmental taxes that will be placed on the site. All this cost can run around 4 million dollars, and that is just to test the well, this is part of what causes a barrel of oil to cost so much.

In the Journal article that was submitted by these researchers, they looked at 4 possible replacements that have already started to be implemented in the industry. It is the hopes of many that these processes will bring about a change in how well testing is done, and solve many of the problems that oil and gas companies have today.

The first process that is looked at is the closed chamber test. This is where a large chamber with a known volume is attached to the well. When the Hydrocarbons start flooding in it is possible to calculate the pressure the well exerts, however it is not as easy to figure out which hydrocarbons are actually present in the container, if any at all. This is a safe process because no hydrocarbons are released, and safety is never a concern.

The second system is called a Wire line Test. In this process a pump with applies a pressure equal to the pressure being exerted by the well. This allows for an easy calculation of the pressure of the well, and data can be drawn that tells what hydrocarbons are present.

The final two tests are called Injection, and Production reinjection. In Injection, a salt water is pumped down the well, and it is measured to see how much pressure is exerted against the water. With this they can test calculate pressure of the well, however they can only guess at the contents of the well using this process. Production reinjection however is a different process here, the Hydrocarbons are allowed to come up a pipe, where samples can be taken, and pressure can be measures. From here however the hydrocarbons filter into another pipe where they are pumped back into the earth above the main well. This way the re injected hydrocarbons can be re accessed later as the well is being tapped.

The conclusions that were drawn from this research is mixed at best. It was concluded that not one of these processes would be perfect. However with a combination of these processes it is however seen that with the use of two or more of these techniques would be quite efficient at getting information. However at this time, there is no way of combining any of these processes and you instead would have to drill 2 test holes once again increasing cost. However it is hoped that with this information known that in the future a technique can be produced that incorporate aspects of all of these tests to prefect the process. This creates a clean, cheap and safe way of reducing the production cost of Hydrocarbons. And with this reduction in cost, should come a reduction of cost for oil, meaning that everyone will be able to have lower gas prices.

Verga, F. And Rocca, V. 2010. Green methodologies to test hydrocarbon reservoirs. American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 6(1): 1-10.

Earth’s Biodiversity Suffering because of Increased Resource Use

   

By: Joshua Kuikman

       Think of an average day, you wake up and take a nice warm shower, drive to McDonald’s and eat a big mac, maybe see whats new with your friends on facebook then watch some TV before going to bed. Isn’t technology great! Wrong, it is the reason the Earth’s biodiversity is suffering. A new report from the biannual “Living Planet” by WWF says that at current rates humans will need a new Earth by 2030 to be able to sustain our over use of resources. Economic growth has increased our demand for resources like food and technology. Since the 1960‘s our ecological footprint has doubled in size. Developed countries are the main contributor for this. These countries use up the majority of the world’s resources and as resources run out within the countries own boundaries the country turns to other parts of the world. These countries need to find a way to decrease their footprint by using less resources or more environmental friendly resources. The Living Planet Index is a measurement of global biodiversity. 

Figure 1: Living Planet Index (“Living Planet”, 2010).

                               

Figure 2: Global Ecological Footprint (“Living Planet”, 2010).

                              

      
      The Ecological Footprint, “is an accounting framework that tracks humanity’s competing demands on the biosphere by comparing human demand against the regenerative capacity of the planet” (“Living Planet”, 2010). As seen from the above graphs as humans footprint increases the Earth’s biodiversity decreases. A human factor that affects the Earth’s biodiversity negatively is habit lose. As human population grows more land is used for farming, fishing, and urban use. Also, by introducing a species to a foreign part of the world it becomes an invasive species and as a result they become predators, competitors or parasites. Harvesting wild animals and plants is also bad for biodiversity. Lastly pollution ruins the environment by killing organisms. These factors were main contributors in the Earth’s ecological footprint which exceeded the Earth’s biocapacity by fifty percent in 2007. 

      Developing countries tend to have a smaller footprint than those of developed countries. Developing countries also have a higher rate of biodiversity loss and as a result have inadequate clean water, land, food and materials. This makes it almost impossible for poor countries to prosper. The reason for developed countries using such a large amount of resources is technology. These richer countries have the technology able to exploit resources at a higher rate. They are able to effectively clear more land in shorter amounts of time for agricultural and urban uses. Also, by having so much technology so close at hand developed countries pollute a’lot more, mainly through fossil fuel products like cars. By the year 2030 humans will need the capacity of two Earths to sustain natural resource consumption and absorb carbon dioxide. If everyone on the Earth used as many resources as an average American we would need four and a half Earths to sustain us. 

      To combat this problem developed countries need to lower their footprint on this planet by using less technology.  By doing this humans would pollute much more insignificantly. Also, we would not be able to use as many resources. These two factors combined should cause the Earth’s biodiversity should start to increase. 

Reference List:

“Living Planet”. (2010). WWF. Retrieved October 14th, 2010, from http:// 

             assets.panda.org/downloads/lpr2010.pdf.

       

What Makes Invasive Species so Successful?

John David Russo (0707990)

October 14, 2010.

ENVS*1020*0140

Blog Assignment #2

A couple of decades ago, there did not seem to be any problems with taking a species from one part of the world and putting it in another if it was convenient. But what happens if the exotic species were to somehow get a foothold in the local ecosystems? At the time of moving these species this did not seem to be a concern but as time goes forward we are beginning to realize how these species can sometimes succeed too much in foreign environments and have a negative effect on the ecosystems natural balance. Exotic species that take hold in a foreign environment and known as invasive species. What make invasive species dangerous is that they may out-compete native species and cause the local extinction of one or more native species. One question on many minds is what makes invasive species so successful in foreign environments.

A study, titled “Challenging growth–survival trade-off: a key for Acer negundo invasion in European floodplains?” published in the Canadian Journal of Forest Research, tries to uncover what makes invasive species so successful. The study initially suggests that a species is likely to be invasive in a foreign environment if the traits that make the species naturally successful are not restricted by the new environment it is placed in. To try and determine what make exotic species invasive, the researchers choose to study the survival and growth rates of four different species of tree in three different areas in the Rhône floodplain in France.

One of the species chosen was an invasive species that has already taken a foothold in the area. This species was the Acer negundo L., which is considered to be a midsuccessional species. The other three species chosen are all native to the area and now survive alongside the Acer negundo. The one of the three native species is the Populus alba L., which is considered to be an early successional species. Another is the Salix alba L., which is considered to be an early successional species. The last is the Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl., which is considered to be a late successional species.

The forests in the area contain three different groups divided based on the tree species each contains, and their distance from the river. The first group is dominated by the two early successional native trees, Populus alba and Salix alba, this group is the closest to the river and is flooded yearly. The second group is dominated by the mid successional invasive tree species Acer negundo, it also includes old Populus alba, this group stands on an older part of the plain and is flooded often. The third group is dominated by the late successional native Fraxinus angustifolia, this group sits on higher land, known as upper terraces, and is rarely flooded.

For their experiment, groups of each tree type were placed in each of the different forest groups and their survival and growth rates were recorded. Within each of the different forest areas, groups the four tree species were planted so that each group would be faced with different situations and challenges. These included areas of little or high exposure to sunlight, or difference in soil conditions.

At the end of the experiment, the native species all had high survival rates in the areas to which they were accustomed and low survival rates in areas to which they were not. Populus alba and Salix alba survived well in high sun exposure but poorly in low sun exposure, where as Fraxinus angustifolia survived well is low sun exposure and poorly in high sun exposure. The invasive Acer negundo seemed to survive almost as well as Populus alba and Salix alba high sunlight exposure and almost as well as Fraxinus angustifolia in low sunlight exposure.

This could suggest that the exotic species is successful do to the fact that it takes a position between the two native species in its requirements to be successful. The invasive species fill an intermediate role that the native species could not and therefore thrives.

Works Cited

Saccone, Patrick, Jean-Jacques Brun, and Richard Michalet. "Challenging Growth–survival Trade-off: a

Key for Acer Negundo Invasion in European Floodplains?" Canadian Journal of Forest Research

40.10 (2010): 1879-886. Print.

David Hillier (0719575)
Blog Assignment 2
October 14, 2010

It has become common knowledge that environmental degradation is made worse by excessive logging. Any individual with an understanding of the environment realizes this fact; trees perform photosynthesis which removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and we all breathe a little easier. When the trees are cut down, we all suffer. However, many do not think of the legacy of damage left behind by logging. The harvesting of forests requires great stretches of roads and the machinery that travel these roads have a negative impact on underlying soil say Flemish researchers.
“A good soil pore system is vital to soil biota, tree roots and ground vegetation,” say the researchers from Ghent University. In the paper, attention is drawn to soil compaction and contamination due to the repetitive back and forth movement of harvesting machinery; “…smaller pore sizes reduce hydraulic conductivity leading to a slower water infiltration and increased runoff… as root tips have to overcome soil strength to be able to elongate, root growth may be hampered.” Without productive soil leftover, a detrimental future is the result for our forests.
The research was conducted over the course of a year in both winter and summer conditions. Eight strands of forest in Belgium were used for the study. Measurements of dry-bulk density, penetration resistance, and soil carbon dioxide concentration were taken with initial soil texture, machine mass, and traffic frequency taken into consideration and controlled.
It was found that the relationship between soil compaction and traffic intensity grew in a logarithmic pattern. At first compaction was positive but soon became close to zero. Interestingly, the researchers therefore came to the realization that the frequency of traffic has a small impact on soil quality, “Significant effects on BD (bulk density) were nearly absent and occurred occasionally for PR (penetration resistance)... The negligible compaction degrees… are attributed to high initial compaction levels that prevented further compaction.” This means although the rate of soil compaction is high at first, once the soil becomes compact it is difficult to stress it any further.
Instead, carbon dioxide concentration proved to be the most significant indicator of soil compaction. The researchers observed that even after one back and forth movement of equipment a substantial jump in soil carbon dioxide concentration occurred both inside and outside of the tracks. It was found that any increase in soil compaction greatly reduces the ability for gas exchange. The sealing of pores and reduced oxygen concentration in the soil can mean doom for forest recovery, “…the altered gas exchange after soil compaction resulted in higher mean carbon dioxide concentrations and lower oxygen concentrations in the soil. This may cause problems… as root growth of seedlings is reduced when the oxygen concentration drops.” This makes reclamation far more difficult. The repetitive movement of heavy machinery seems to “choke out” the soil, limiting its ability to breathe.
A natural remedy exists but is very slow to act, providing ample time for forest damage. Time is something global warming does not seem to have a problem with, “Recovery of a compacted soil is a long-term process that is largely based on freezing and melting of soil water, swelling and shrinking of clay particles and biological activity of roots and soil animals that break up the soil. Literature shows that it can take at least 20–30 years before recovery is complete.” This time period is definitely a minimum. The authors go on to say that in some cases 30-40 years is insufficient for complete recovery. Gas diffusion and root density is still impacted after this time period. The authors say it best: “High compaction degrees should thus be prevented.”
The paper has several suggestions that would help with this issue. An understandable solution is reducing contact pressure by using lighter machinery. Another suggestion evolves from the data found earlier in the paper. The fact that compaction becomes less over time speaks to having permanent trail ways and use of already compacted areas. This would limit the area of soil that is affected. The authors also consider that some mechanical loosening could help to augment the natural recovery process.
This fresh research opens up an entirely new aspect to forest reclamation. This novel aspect could put added pressure on the industry to place more emphasis on the rehabilitation effort of our natural forest environments; all the better for saving the trees.

Ampoorter, E., Hermy, M., Van Nevel, L. and Verheyen, K. (15 September 2010). Assessing

the effects of initial soil characteristics, machine mass and traffic intensity on forest soil

compaction, Forest Ecology Management, 260 (10), 1664-1676.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6T6X-5119FTH-2-9&_cdi=5042&_user=1067211&_pii=S0378112710004482&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item&_coverDate=10%2F15%2F2010&_sk=997399989&wchp=dGLbVzz-zSkzV&md5=a352c9f846007a9e12c93d31941f34b5&ie=/sdarticle.pdf

Monarch butterflies medicate diseases in offspring

Jaime Ashton
0707463



New studies have shown exciting new evidence to prove the first trans-generational medication in animals. Biologists at Emory University in Atlanta have discovered that Monarch butterflies, who are infected with the parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (a disease that can be passed down to their offspring), have been found to lay their eggs on anti-parasitic host plants. These plants have been shown to reduce parasite infection in the offspring, and many of the disease symptoms are eliminated.


The parasite enters the insect when it is in its caterpillar form. Spores of the parasite are ingested and are coated on the eggs when the female butterflies lay them. The gut wall of the insect is penetrated and the parasite begins to multiply right away and in large amounts.


Since the butterfly nor the caterpillar cannot cure itself of the parasite it lays its eggs on toxic plants that reduce the parasites growth and disease in its offspring.


The idea of animals using medication on their offspring is quite intriguing and interesting to scientists, since traditionally it was thought that animals only focused on "self-medicating". "Self-medicating" is where the species uses compounds and other materials to try and cure itself or try and prevent diseases before they have even gotten one. This type of self-medicating is one of two, where the other one is called therapeutic self-medication. In this instance the animal uses anti-parasitic substances from already infected species to fight off or kill the pathogen. Therapeutic self-medicating is scarcely found among animals and is still undergoing research. This new finding of animals using medicine to help their offspring is exciting to people in the health field, thinking that maybe one day, the medicines that animals use can one day be manipulated to help fight human pathogens. People believe that since Monarch butterflies are able to do this, that perhaps other sorts of insects are capable and perhaps even some vertebrates.


The biologists experimental design was made up of two predictions: that the larvae do not have the ability at that point in their life to choose to eat the more anti-parasitic plant, and that the adult butterflies will choose to lay their eggs on the anti-parasitic host plants when they are infected. The first prediction was proven correct when the larvae in fact choose to eat both plants with no preference, but parasite burdens were lower in the larvae that ate the higher anti-parasitic host. The Monarch butterflies (some infected, some not) were given the choice of two milkweed species (the host plants). It was found that most of the infected butterflies chose to lay their eggs on the more anti-parasitic plant, A. curassavica, and the non-infected chose the other plant, A. incarnata. The genotypes of the parasites on the butterflies born on A. curassavica were seen to produce less spore loads. The experiment proves prediction number two and then showed that the infected offspring born on the more anti-parasitic plant had reduced effects of the parasite than those born on the other host plant. Also, the infected offspring born on A. curassavica had a longer life span than those born on A. incarnata. Uninfected offspring had a longer life when born on A. incarnata. This experiment also showed the decreased laying abilities of females that were infected with the parasite. Twenty seven out of forty nine infected females did not lay eggs and fourteen out of forty three uninfected didn't. However, the number of eggs laid by able females differed only slightly.


This study proves evidence that animals are learning to cope with diseases and are trying to save their offspring by treating them with medicine of sorts. The results also support the research that kin selection can and usually is crucial in initiating the evolution of behaviours in wild animals. The Monarch butterflies are choosing to help their offspring and try to improve their health, so eventually in future generations the parasite will be somewhat elminated.

Reference

Lefevre, T., Oliver, L., Hunter, M. D., and DeRoode, J. C. (2010, October 6). Ecology letters. In Evidence for trans-generational medication in nature. Retrieved October 12, 2010, from http:ééonlinelibrary.wiley.comédoié10.1111éj.1461-0248.2010.01537.xéfull

The biodiversity conservation of the tropical forests of Oceania

Recently the tropical forest of the scattering islands realm of Oceania has experienced declining and devastating on biodiversity and ecological communities, as the impact of exotic plants and animals as well as the activities of humans around the area. In the Biological Conservation, the article “Biodiversity conservation in tropical forest landscapes of Oceania” (8 February 2010) written by J.C.Z. Woinarski gives some research and examples of the tropical forest conservation. Woinarski takes a close look at the conservation issues about the tropical forests of Oceania, which now is a significant problem not just of the regional ecosystem but also of the world’s biodiversity.

There are few reasons that why we should stress this problem of this specific area. The Oceania areas are included the Pacific island regions of Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia, tropical Australia (77%) and New Zealand. There is relative small numbers displaying when we compare the Oceania’s properties in terms of the land area (660,000 km2) and the human population (just over 13 million, <0.2% of the earth’s total) with a global scaling. Other than that the tropical forests of Oceania and their degree of biodiversity are significant worldly because of the high level of its localized endemic species and those species contribute significantly to the biodiversity of world’s tropical forest, which is also the reason why Woinarski select this particular region to investigation. However, currently these tropical forests in Oceania are exposed in a shortage of conservation reserves, for example in some countries the conservation is nearly nominal and the resources are still exposed in the abusive usage and degradation. One of the major reasons of the existence of this situation in part is the demands on the economic development and the poor governance.

As the result of many associated factors of some indirect threats of the entire ecosystem of Oceania, it is pointless to demonstrate the consequences of those threats or try to find out the root-causes of them in Woinatski’s opinion. Nevertheless there are still some direct warnings faced by the tropical landscape of this area which we have to give elaborate examination. Besides it has never been difficult to illustrate numerous cases from few observations of recent studies. At first, the introduction of non-native species leads to the catastrophic impact of many native species on the Oceania islands. Since the limited genetic diversity, small population sizes, and low reproduction ability of the island biota, this kind of characteristic can impair the defense against novel disease consumers and predators. The example of Hawaii is typical to illustrated, 73-93 bird species has extinct after the Polynesians arriving and a further 17 have gradually disappeared as well by the recent times, and the remaining species are mostly trapping in the possibility of extinction. Furthermore there are only 1000 and 1500 native species of flowering plants on the Hawaii islands, however, at least 800 out of over 4000 introduced species has become invasive non-native species to the localization.

At the same time the climate change also can contributes to profound compression or shrink of the islands of Oceania. Let’s say only 1m of sea level arisen can lead to sharply contract or disappear of island’s surface. Then the statics done by other researchers at 2005 have shown the 1℃ rising temperature will emerge the extinction of one of the 85 species of the upland area, similarly 3.4℃ leads to 30 species dying out, and 4.8℃ makes for 60 species extinct. There are also natural and historical disturbances triggered the deforestation and devastation of Oceania tropical forestry. Even some regions have undergone a long period of history have been exposed in direct human modification, like slash-and-burn agriculture or even the abandon to natural regeneration. Also if we include the disturbance of resource exploitation and land usage and hunting, it is no surprise that the Oceania tropical forests will get to this desperate point.

Now we stand on the point where facing with this bleak outlook of the tropical forest of Oceania. Woinarski illustrated few responses as well to try to clarify this situation. Comparing with most Oceania’s forests, the vast tropical forests of Australia is an exception due to its strategic restoration and organized protection and management of the resting forest areas. The point which cannot be overlooked is some inconsistent results between the studies of Woinatski’s and that of Bowen et al. (2007). The later one reported that some species shows increases with having highest richness and successional age, especially those species that rare in cleared areas and secondary forest. Whereas, restoration of the Oceania region now is obviously constrained by the downwards growth of special native species. Namely the risk of flying-foxes is a good example to take into consideration (Cox et al., 1991). Hence, to some degree, this might implicate that the ecosystem of some individual islands may nerve be reobtained.
At the end we have to take the social factors and the validity of governance into account. Since the conservation of forests is associated with large range of international trade policies and market and demand. Therefore the improvement of international policy has become a spotlight topic. What’s more this revolution of policy has to be specific, realistic and implementable.

Reference:
Woinarski, J.C.Z., 2010. Biodiversity conservation in tropical forest landscapes of Oceania. Biological Conservation, 143: 2385-2394
http://journals1.scholarsportal.info/details-sfx.xqy?uri=/00063207/v143i0010/2385_bcitfloo.xml

Landscape architecture and urban design collaborate to create "green" industry

Environmentalism is quickly becoming a widespread mindset which is being implemented all around the world. Many modern societies are looking to incorporate a “green” aspect into current professions and industries; specifically urban space design is receiving significant attention. With this new found awareness, many of today’s more advanced societies are shifting towards applying a green aspect into space design. This new sector of industry is known as environmental design.

A recent study done by the Department of Architecture and Environmental Design at the Iran University of Science and Technology determined that by fusing certain aspects of landscape architecture and urban design there is potential in achieving an ideal environmental design industry. Urban design and landscape architecture are consider to be parallel professions, in fact a study conducted by Professor Mostafa Behzadfar and his research team showed that they have the exact same goals and responsibilities and very similar processes and finished products. The major difference between the two is with respect to how much emphasis is put on each individual goal within the profession.

A sample set of data was collected concerning the goals and responsibilities of both urban design and landscape architecture by conducting a questionnaire survey amongst seasoned professionals in each field. The first question determined what was thought to be the most important role of each profession. The data showed that design, planning, politics, management, leadership, balance, control, co-ordination, and conservation (in order of most popular answer to least) were the self-assigned roles of professionals in each field. This provided the basis to the theory that collaboration was possible amongst both fields.

The next question asked professionals which roles they felt they had in common with one another. The results showed that managing, planning, policy making, conducting, design and controlling were all areas professionals from either field felt like they overlapped each other. Behzadfar posed this question in order to reveal a more distinguished connection between landscape architecture and urban design. To simplify the study, researchers grouped the results into four categories: design, implementation, planning, and guidelines.

The final question included in the study searched to determine the amount of emphasis each profession placed on the four main categories. Urban designers placed more emphasis on the guidelines and planning aspects than they did on the design and implementation of the design. The reasoning for this is because urban designers feel that the guideline and planning aspects should determine the design and planning strategy. Landscape architects, on the other hand, placed more emphasis on the overall design and the implementation of the design. The reasoning behind this is because for their profession, guidelines and planning are made to comply with the model specifically as they differ depending on the project at hand.

Differences in priorities have caused urban design and landscape architecture to have difficulty working together in an organized and productive manner. With this lack of clarified communication within the urban space design industry, the creation of a functional environmental design in modern society has not occurred. However, by observing the similarities and difference between the parallel professions, Behzadhar and company were able to derive an optimum pattern of interaction and co-operation amongst urban design and landscape architecture. Instead of both professions having such segregated work habits and limited interaction, Behzadhar’s pattern suggests a highly integrated and communicative approach. The pattern of interaction would allow each profession to perform their obvious strengths and also provide input regarding the remaining responsibilities in the environmental design industry.

Landscape architects would be in charge of designing and planning of the infrastructure or area. Meanwhile, urban designers would have the majority of control over managing and policy making for the urban space. Finally, in order to properly fit both designing and planning with management and policy, both professions would provide equal input when faced with design codes and guidelines. Each professions input would be highly effective in creating an ideal environmental design because the overall design and management would be connected properly with suitable guidelines. From the collaboratively designed guidelines, efficient controls and co-ordination between each profession could be implemented.

By following the suggested pattern of interaction derived from the survey, landscape architecture and urban design could ultimately evolve into the single profession of environmental design. Societies would be able to begin a new “green” trend starting with the root infrastructure.

Reference:

Behzadfar, M., Faizi, M., Asl, S.R. and Beiklou, B.H. 2010. A New Collaborative Pattern between Landscape Architects and Urban Designers in Environmental Design. American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 6 (4): 344-349 http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/ajes/ajes64344-349.pdf

"Survival of the Fittest"

By: Hayley Mitchell

Scientists have been warning us about global warming for almost three decades, but most of us are only just beginning to get the message. The planet is getting warmer, and this warming is occurring at an alarmingly rapid rate. Even though a warmer climate sounds appealing to many, it creates a lot of negative impacts on our planet. One very unfortunate effect is the loss of species!

The International Panel on Climate Change has estimated that about 25% of animal and plant species will face an increased risk of extinction with a temperature increase of only a 1.5-2.5 degree Celsius, and a shocking 40-70% increased risk if temperatures rise more than 3.5 degrees Celsius!!

Some environmental changes caused by this warming can include an increase in sea water level, ocean acidity, severity of storms, hurricanes, and changes in ocean currents, to name only a few! All of these changes will ultimately affect the marine ecosystem and most importantly, the cetaceans. Cetaceans are a web of species sitting at the top of the marine food web, controlling all species below them. Ultimately, we humans can not survive without this ecosystem so, researching how these marine animals will be impacted by these changes is imperative!

Direct impacts on cetaceans can involve changes in migration patterns, both timing and pathways, access to prey, successful reproduction and birth rates, and survival. Since water temperatures will be increasing all over the world, species will need to either migrate or evolve to be able to survive in their new environment. For some, it will be easier than others.

Indirect changes are the implications of problems arising from global warming, such as rise in sea level. Although the water level itself does not affect cetaceans, it can result in a loss of habitat. Those who are limited to coastal bay areas, ie. those who are affected directly, would be more vulnerable to the changes.

Polar species will have a difficult time adapting to the warming temperatures. As average global temperatures rise only a degree or two, the greatest and earliest warming takes place in the cold polar regions. As there is less snow and ice to reflect sunlight back into space, the exposed land and dark ocean absorb the sun's rays, warming the atmosphere even more. It is believed that a general shift towards the poles will take place, increasing marine life in the poles. This could lead to multiple detrimental situations. For example, competition for natural resources and habitats, increased boat traffic and commercial development will only cause more pollution and promote further global warming and thus habitat destruction.

The Antarctic Ocean holds more than half of the world’s marine diversity, a vast majority feeding on krill. Krill thrive off of algae found under the ice surface, however, with the acceleration in polar ice melting, krill populations have declined almost 80% in the past few decades. Those like the baleen whale, who are dependent on krill and have limited spaces for cooler water, encounter extreme risk of extinction.

Our oceans play an extremely vital part in maintaining our planet Earth’s health. Therefore, pressures such as overfishing, pollution, and finning only push us closer to these negative consequences. Oceans absorb 40,000 billion metric tons annually, much of that absorption coming from fish. With declining rates in fish populations due to longlines, fish trawlers, and other human activity, the ocean is unable to absorb so much. The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere then bonds with hydrogen, increasing carbonate ions and continuing the cycle of warming.

In order to slow down the acceleration of warming, both domestic and international regulations need to be put into action. Global involvement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, research for green energy and other decisions that ensure healthier air and water quality are essential for many of today’s living species. Although the entire world’s population does not believe in the signals seen on our planet Earth, it has definitely become more accepted across the globe. In order to save our wildlife, and ultimately ourselves, we must act NOW!

"Greenhouse Effect Responsible For Global Climate Change | Politics." Global Climate, Global Warming, Liberal Politics, Green Lifestyle. Web. 14 Oct. 2010. http://www.whataretheywaitingfor.com/global-climate-change.htl>

Mark P. Simmonds and Wendy J. Eliott (2009). Climate change and cetaceans: concerns and recent developments. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 89, pp 203-210 doi:10.1017/S0025315408003196

Giant Fish of Mekong River Endangered

Giant Fish May Go Extinct
Tara Mathur 0725528

The Mekong River which passes through Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam is home to at least 1100 species of fish (Thompson 2010). Due to the deep water pools, which provide natural protection and richness of food to fish species during the dry season, four out of the top ten giant freshwater fish species also call this 4800 km river home (Thompson 2010). Scientifically speaking, a species must be capable of growing to at least two metres in length or 100 kg in weight to qualify as a giant fish (Thompson 2010). The giant fish species that can be found in the Mekong River can grow up to 5 metres in length and weigh almost half a ton (Thompson 2010). Some of these giant freshwater fish, including the giant freshwater stingray, the Mekong giant catfish, the giant pangasius (dog-eating catfish) and the giant barb, are in danger due to hydropower dams that are to be built in the Lower Mekong River and large tributaries.
There are future plans for eleven hydropower dams to be built on the mainstream of the Lower Mekong River (Thompson 2010). These dams pose a threat to giant freshwater fish species. Many of the species are migratory and the dams creates a physical block which prevents them from migrating. If the fish can not migrate then they are unable to spawn wildly and therefore will not reproduce. This could lead to an extinction of a particular species as eventually they will all die off.
The first dam to be built is the Sayabouly hydropower dam which will be located in the Sayabouly Province of northern Lao PDR. If the Sayabouly dam is built, it is feared that the giant catfish will go extinct as it will not be able to survive as a species if it cannot pass through the dam. One of the most critical parts of the Mekong River is between Chang Rai, Thailand and Bokeo, Laos. It is a crucial section as it is believed by fisherman and scientists that it is one of the only areas that the giant catfish spawn wildly (Thompson 2010). The giant catfish are long distance migrators and any dam that is built on the mainstream of the lower Mekong River will prevent them from spawning (Thompson 2010). This will effectively not let them reproduce thus killing of the species as we know it.
The World Wildlife Fund does not believe that the impact of the of these dams have been fully assessed as they state in their 2010 study, River of Giants: Giant Fish of the Mekong, that “While the impacts of dams have been well studied in other areas of the world, data gaps in the Greater Mekong region prevent a proper assessment of the impacts of the 11 hydropower dams planned.” They suggest building sustainable hydropower projects on the tributaries towards the Mekong River as it is beneficial for their construction. Also if one tributary gets blocked up by a dam, there will be another tributary that will be left free-flowing, which will connect the upper and lower reaches of the basin. But there is only one mainstream and if you block it up the ecosystem connectivity could be potentially lost.
“Currently the Lower Mekong remains free-flowing, which presents a rare opportunity for the conservation of these species. But the clock is ticking.” says Christian Thompson, author of the 2010 WWF study, River of Giants: Giant Fish of the Mekong.


References:

Hogan, Zeb. "Bear-Size Catfish, Half-Ton Stingrays Among World's ''Monster'' Fishes." National Geographic News. National Geographic, n.d. Web. 14 Oct 2010. .

Thompson, C. (2010). River of giants: giant fish of the mekong. Retrieved from http://assets.panda.org/downloads/new_river_of_giants_report_14_may_2010_web_version.pdf

Blog Assignment #2: A Solution to the Genetically Modified Organism Debate

Lisa Karjala

0708244

Ever since the introduction of genetically modified foods, there has been debate about their use. In recent research, however it was found that even non genetically altered foods can benefit from genetically modified foods. In recent findings, genetically modified corn that contained a gene for protection against insects, such as the European corn borer, actually helped to protect corn without the gene. The European corn Borer is a moth whose caterpillars eat corn leaves and tunnel through corn stalks, and have been said to cost American farmers more than one billion dollars per year. The gene itself was derived from a bacterium that is lethal to the European corn Borer, and acts the same way when used in the genes of corn. The corn that does contain the gene is known as Bt corn, and corn without the Bt gene is known as non-Bt corn.

Scientists have recently discovered a way for supporters and boycotters to take advantage of genetically modified organisms. By planting non-Bt corn near Bt corn, the non-Bt corn is less effected by the European corn borer. This is due to the fact that female corn borers use both non-Bt and Bt corn for laying their eggs, and if all the caterpillars on Bt corn die, then there are significantly less corn borers that can effect non- Bt corn. This is what scientists call the “halo effect”, and was established in 1996 by Alstad and Andlow. So if the premise is so old, why is it news?

Although the premise of the “halo effect” was created in 1996, the economic benefits of this effect have only just recently been determined. Hutchinson et. al are the first to provide an economic analysis of the halo effect. In this analysis, they showed that it is much more efficient, economically speaking, for farmers to purchase and plant non-Bt corn. They arrive at this conclusion due to two factors. The first being that Bt corn seeds are very expensive and by purchasing non-Bt corn seeds the farmers will save money. The second being that as long as the farmers plant their non-Bt corn near Bt corn, they need not worry about insects, due to the halo effect. This conclusion, however, relies on the non-Bt corn being planted near Bt corn, which may not be possible. Therefore, farmers may want to purchase half of their corn to be Bt corn, and half non-Bt corn. This would eliminate the problem of not having the Bt corn for the halo effect.

By farmers planting both Bt and non-Bt corn, another, much larger problem can be eliminated: the willingness of people to purchase genetically modified foods. The debate between supporters and boycotters is a serious one, and it doesn’t look like it will be resolved any time soon. The halo effect, however, provides a solution to the debate about genetically modified organisms (GMO’s). The halo effect provides a premise, so that both boycotters and supporters will be satisfied. The boycotters of GMO’s can be satisfied, because there is non-genetically modified food that is still relatively protected from pests. The supporters of GMO’s can be satisfied because GMO’s are still being used. The fact is that genetically modified food is becoming more abundant than non-genetically modified food. The premise of the halo effect allows more of a balance between the GMO’s and non GMO’s, making both supporters and boycotters of GMO’s happy, as well as the farmers who are growing them. This idea expands on the economic relevance, as discussed above, because now consumers have a choice between GMO’s and non GMO’s, making the consumer more likely to purchase whichever product they desire.

Although this does seem like a valid resolution to the debate on GMO’s, it is most likely that problems will still arise regarding the issue. The point is that at least temporarily, there has been a way for both GMO’s and non GMO’s to have the benefits of GMO’s. This is a scientific breakthrough, as well as an economic breakthrough in the field of agriculture.

Tabashnik, Bruce E. "Communal Benifits of Transgenic Corn." Science 330.6001 (2010): 189-190. Web. 14 Oct 2010.